Investigation of Performance and Emission Parameters of Hydroxygen (HHO)-Enriched Diesel Fuel with Water Injection in the Compression Ignition Engine
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. The Use of Hydrogen in CI Engine
1.2. The Use of Hydroxygen in CI Engines
1.3. Water Injections in CI Engines
2. Research Equipment and Test Methodology
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Performance Analysis
3.2. Emissions Analysis
3.3. AVL BOOST Simulation
4. Conclusions
- Reductions in pmax, BTE and increases in BSFC were observed with the D+HHO mode at all the BMEP values. The injection of water lowered the temperature in the chamber, and the combustion mixture ignited later with D+H2O and D+HHO+H2O modes. The combination of HHO with water injection produced a dense, homogenized mixture, which could better achieve the desirable engine performance parameters;
- The decrease in NOx emissions in the D+HHO mode was very modest. NOx emissions were reduced by 3–4%. The water injection (D+HHO+H2O mode) decreased NOx emissions at low loads more than twofold, and at high loads by 3–4-fold. Vaporization of the water reduced the temperature of the mixture, the CD increased, released heat reduced the combustion temperature, and the levels of NOx emissions were significantly lowered;
- A slight increase in CO emissions was registered during tests of D+HHO in comparison with the D mode. However, tests with D+HHO+H2O showed that CO emissions increased at all ranges of loads. The injection of water led to a decrease in the CO oxidation reaction rate and an increase in CO emissions;
- The influence of HHO on CO2 emissions was negligible. Due to the injection of water (D+HHO+H2O mode), CO2 emissions slightly increased—by 0.1%;
- The HC emissions increased by 12–20% when the engine was fueled with a D+HHO mixture. Due to the low heating value of the stoichiometric HHO–air mixture and shorter auto-ignition delay, the BSFC and HC increased. Another reason for the increase in HC emissions is the low quenching distance of HHO. Combustion of the mixture occurred at the chamber walls, and thus increased the HC emissions. HC emissions were higher with D+HHO+H2O in comparison with D and D+HHO.
- The simulation of AVL BOOST revealed that the combustion started earlier with the use of HHO and the auto-ignition delay was shorter in comparison with solely D or D+H2O modes, although combustion was faster and CD was shorter;
- Combinations of HHO and WI injection can be used to diminish the NOx emissions with slight decreases in the engine BTE.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
ABDC | After bottom dead center |
ATDC | After top dead center |
BBDC | Before bottom dead center |
BTDC | Before top dead center |
BMEP | Brake mean effective pressure |
BSFC | Brake specific fuel consumption |
BTE | Brake thermal efficiency |
D | Diesel fuel |
CA | Crank angle |
CAD | Crank angle degree |
CD | Combustion duration |
CI | Compressed ignition |
CNG | Compressed natural gas |
CO | Carbon monoxide |
CO2 | Carbon dioxide |
CR | Compression ratio |
EGR | Exhaust gas recirculation |
FC | Fuel cell |
H2 | Hydrogen |
HC | Hydrocarbon |
HES | Hydrogen energy share |
HHO | Hydroxygen |
IMEP | Indicated mean effective pressure |
ICE | Internal combustion engine |
ITE | Indicated thermal efficiency |
LHV | Lower heating value |
MFB | Mass fraction burned |
NOx | Nitrogen oxides |
NTP | Normal temperature and pressure—defined as 20 °C and 101,325 kPa |
PM | Particulate matter |
ROHR | Rate of heat released |
RME | Rapeseed methyl ester |
STP | Standard temperature and pressure—defined as 273.15 K and 1 bar |
SWC | Specific water consumption |
SOI | Start of injection |
SOC | Start of combustion |
TDC | Top dead center |
ULSD | Ultra-low-sulfur diesel |
H2O | Water |
WI | Water injection |
Symbols: | |
mv | Combustion intensity shape parameter |
n | Engine speed |
Me | Engine torque |
p | In-cylinder pressure |
pmax | In-cylinder peak pressure |
BH2 | Mass flow rate of HHO |
dp/dφ | Pressure-rise in the cylinder |
Sm | Smokiness |
vol | Volume |
wt. | Weight |
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Properties | Diesel Fuel | Hydrogen |
---|---|---|
Chemical formula | C10H22–C15H32 | H2 |
Composition (wt.%) | 84–87 C, 13–16 H | 100 |
Molecular weight | 142.3–212.4 | 2.016 |
Density at 15 °C and 1.01 bar, kg/m3 | 835.3 | 0.0837 |
Lower heating value, MJ/kg | 42.5 | 120 |
Lower heating value, MJ/m3 | 36,350 | 10.7 |
Stoichiometric air–fuel ratio, kg/kg | 14.5 | 34.2 |
Heating value of stoichiometric mixture, MJ/kg | 2.74 | 3.40 |
Heating value of stoichiometric mixture, MJ/Nm3 | 3.60 | 3.17 |
Minimum ignition energy, mJ | – | 0.02 |
Flammability limits in air at NTP (vol %) | 0.6–7.5 | 4–75 |
Flame speed, cm/s | 30 | 265–325 |
Autoignition temperature, °C | 250 | 585 |
Publication | Test Conditions | H2 Supply | Liquid Fuel Supply | BTE | BSFC | NOx | Smoke | HC | CO |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Saravanan et al. [15] | HES > 30% | Diesel fuel | ↓ | ↓ | ↓ | ||||
HES < 30% | Diesel fuel | ↑ | |||||||
Antunes Gomes et al. [16] | HES 20% | Diesel fuel | ↓ | ||||||
Zhou et al. [17] | 1800 rpm, 5 loads | HES 10–40% | Diesel fuel | ↓ | ↓ | ||||
Karagoz et al. [18] | Loads 40%, 60%, 75%, | H2 | Diesel fuel | ↓ | |||||
100% | H2 | Diesel fuel | ↑ | ||||||
Juknelevičius et al. [19] | 1900 rpm | 10 lpm, 20 lpm, 30 lpm | Diesel fuel | ↓ | ↓ | ||||
2500 rpm | 10 lpm, 20 lpm, 30 lpm | Diesel fuel | ↓ | ↓ | |||||
Juknelevičius et al. [20] | HES > 15% | RME, ULSD + 7% RME | ↑ | ||||||
HES < 15% | RME, ULSD + 7% RME | ↓ |
Publication | Test Conditions | HHO Supply | Liquid Fuel Supply | BTE | BSFC | NOx | Smoke | HC | CO |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Yilmaz et al. [23] | HHO | Diesel fuel | ↓ | ↓ | ↓ | ||||
Arat et al. [24] | 5.1 lpm HHO | Diesel fuel | ↑ | ↑ | ↓ | ||||
5.1 lpm HHO + 15.3 lpm CNG | Diesel fuel | ↑ | ↑ | ↓ | |||||
Baltacioglu et al. [28] | 10 lpm HHO or H2 | ULSD + 10% biodiesel | ↑ | ↓ | ↑ | ↓ | ↓ | ||
Masjuki et al. [26] | HHO | ULSD + 20% biodiesel | ↑ | ↓ | ↓ | ||||
Mustafa et al. [29] | 1200–2600 rpm | 10 lpm HHO or H2 | ULSD + 20% biodiesel | ↑ | ↓ | ||||
Premkartikkumar et al. [25] | 5.9 kW 1800 rpm | 1 lpm HHO | Diesel fuel | ↓ | ↓ | ↑ | ↑ | ||
3.3 lpm HHO | Diesel fuel | ↓ | ↑ | ↓ | ↓ | ||||
Rimkus [27] | 1.5 lpm HHO | Diesel fuel | ↓ | ↓ | ↓ | ↓ | |||
Rimkus et al. [30] | 45 Nm 2000 rpm | 3 lpm HHO | Diesel fuel | ↓ | ↑ |
Publication | Test Conditions | H2 Supply | Liquid Fuel and Water Supply | BTE | BSFC | NOx | Smoke | HC | CO |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Tesfa et al. [31] | 900–1500 rpm 105–420 Nm | No H2 supply | Diesel fuel WI 0.8–3 kg/h | ↓ | ↑ | ↓ | |||
Tauzia et al. [5] | No H2 supply | Diesel fuel WI 60–65 wt.% of fuel | ↓ | ||||||
Adnan et al. [32] | 1–4 kW 1500–3000 rpm | H2 | Diesel fuel WI 0.42–0.86 kg/h | ↓ | |||||
Chintala et al. [33] | 7.4 kW 1500 rpm | HES 32–39 | ULSD + 20% biodiesel WI 130–270 g/kWh | ↓ | ↑ | ↑ | ↑ | ||
Chintala et al. [34] | 7.4 kW 1500 rpm Comp. ratio 15.4–19.5 | HES 32–39 | ULSD + 20% biodiesel WI 130–480 g/kWh | ↓ | ↓ | ↓ | ↓ | ||
Taghavifar et al. [35] | H2 | ULSD WI 5–15% of fuel vol | ↓ |
Parameter | Value |
---|---|
Number of cylinders | 4 |
Cylinder bore, mm | 79.5 |
Piston stroke, mm | 95.5 |
Displacement, cm3 | 1896 |
Compression ratio | 19.5 |
Length of connecting road, mm | 150 |
Maximum engine power, kW | 66 @ 4000 rpm |
Maximum engine torque, Nm | 180 @ 2000–2500 rpm |
Inlet valve open | 16° BTDC |
Inlet valve close | 25° ABDC |
Exhaust valve open | 28° BBDC |
Exhaust valve close | 19° ATDC |
Parameter | Measurement Range | Accuracy |
---|---|---|
NOx | 0–5000 ppm | 1 ppm |
HC | 0–20,000 ppm | 1 ppm |
CO | 0–10% vol | 0.01% vol |
CO2 | 0–20% vol | 0.1% vol |
O2 | 0–25% vol | 0.01% vol |
Absorption (K-Value) | 0–99.99 m−1 | 0.01 m−1 |
Indicators | D+HHO | D+H2O | D+HHO+H2O |
---|---|---|---|
BMEP = 0.2 MPa | |||
HES, % | 1.80 | – | 1.69 |
Mass flow rate of HHO, kg/h | 0.0125 | – | 0.0125 |
Mass flow rate of H2O, kg/h | – | 8.4 | 8.4 |
BMEP = 0.4 MPa | |||
HES, % | 1.16 | – | 1.13 |
Mass flow rate of HHO, kg/h | 0.0125 | – | 0.0125 |
Mass flow rate of H2O, kg/h | – | 11.2 | 11.2 |
BMEP = 0.6 MPa | |||
HES, % | 0.84 | – | 0.81 |
Mass flow rate of HHO, kg/h | 0.0125 | – | 0.0125 |
Mass flow rate of H2O, kg/h | – | 13.4 | 13.4 |
BMEP = 0.8 MPa | |||
HES, % | 0.66 | – | 0.65 |
Mass flow rate of HHO, kg/h | 0.0125 | – | 0.0125 |
Mass flow rate of H2O, kg/h | – | 15.0 | 15.0 |
Parameters | Uncertainty, % |
In-cylinder pressure, p | ±1 |
Engine torque, Me | ±1 |
BMEP | ±1.2 |
BSFC | ±2.5 |
BTE | ±2.3 |
Indicators | D | D+HHO | D+H2O | D+HHO+H2O |
---|---|---|---|---|
BMEP = 0.2 MPa | ||||
Mass flow rate of D, kg/h | 1.885 | 1.925 | 2.093 | 2.057 |
Mass flow rate of HHO, kg/h | – | 0.0125 | – | 0.0125 |
BMEP = 0.4 MPa | ||||
Mass flow rate of D, kg/h | 2.869 | 3.011 | 3.214 | 3.077 |
Mass flow rate of HHO, kg/h | – | 0.0125 | – | 0.0125 |
BMEP = 0.6 MPa | ||||
Mass flow rate of D, kg/h | 4.068 | 4.186 | 4.417 | 4.311 |
Mass flow rate of HHO, kg/h | – | 0.0125 | – | 0.0125 |
BMEP = 0.8 MPa | ||||
Mass flow rate of D, kg/h | 5.143 | 5.333 | 5.455 | 5.414 |
Mass flow rate of HHO, kg/h | – | 0.0125 | – | 0.0125 |
Indicators | D+HHO | D | D+HHO+H2O | D+H2O |
---|---|---|---|---|
BMEP = 0.2 MPa | ||||
Combustion duration (CD), CAD | 38 | 39 | 41 | 43 |
Shape parameter, mv | 0.48 | 0.62 | 0.38 | 0.41 |
BMEP = 0.4 MPa | ||||
Combustion duration (CD), CAD | 40 | 41 | 44 | 46 |
Shape parameter, mv | 0.54 | 0.67 | 0.44 | 0.47 |
BMEP = 0.6 MPa | ||||
Combustion duration (CD), CAD | 45 | 46 | 48 | 51 |
Shape parameter, mv | 0.60 | 0.67 | 0.54 | 0.59 |
BMEP = 0.8 MPa | ||||
Combustion duration (CD), CAD | 49 | 52 | 55 | 57 |
Shape parameter, mv | 0.67 | 0.69 | 0.61 | 0.65 |
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Juknelevičius, R.; Rimkus, A.; Pukalskas, S.; Szwaja, S. Investigation of Performance and Emission Parameters of Hydroxygen (HHO)-Enriched Diesel Fuel with Water Injection in the Compression Ignition Engine. Clean Technol. 2021, 3, 537-562. https://doi.org/10.3390/cleantechnol3030033
Juknelevičius R, Rimkus A, Pukalskas S, Szwaja S. Investigation of Performance and Emission Parameters of Hydroxygen (HHO)-Enriched Diesel Fuel with Water Injection in the Compression Ignition Engine. Clean Technologies. 2021; 3(3):537-562. https://doi.org/10.3390/cleantechnol3030033
Chicago/Turabian StyleJuknelevičius, Romualdas, Alfredas Rimkus, Saugirdas Pukalskas, and Stanislaw Szwaja. 2021. "Investigation of Performance and Emission Parameters of Hydroxygen (HHO)-Enriched Diesel Fuel with Water Injection in the Compression Ignition Engine" Clean Technologies 3, no. 3: 537-562. https://doi.org/10.3390/cleantechnol3030033